CJSA1

in large federally funded projects as a program developer
and evaluator. She has more than 15 years of research ad‐
ministration experience and has been teaching grant
writing in the U.S. and internationally since 2014.

1 AN ORIENTATION TO
PROPOSAL WRITING

Chapter Topics

A Book for the Beginning Grant Writer

A Brief History of Giving and Philanthropy

Di�erences Between Grants and Contracts

De�nition of a Proposal

Request for Proposals (RFP)

A BOOK FOR THE BEGINNING
GRANT WRITER

There is nothing more exciting or gratifying than to par‐
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A BOOK FOR THE BEGINNING
GRANT WRITER

There is nothing more exciting or gratifying than to par‐
ticipate in designing a program, writing a proposal that
gets funded, and ultimately, seeing that program come to
life in the community! This book is written to help you,
the beginning grant writer, understand the basics of
grant writing and develop the necessary skills to write an
acceptable, and hopefully successful, grant application.
We avoid the use of technical jargon as much as possible
and provide a step-by-step process to help you write a
proposal for a nonpro�t organization (including schools)
seeking public funding through governmental or private
funders. (For those of you writing research proposals, we
recommend: The Nuts and Bolts of Grant Writing by
Cynthia E. Carr [2015] and Writing Successful Grant
Proposals by Robert J. Sternberg [2014].)

Grant writing is often the primary means by which a
nonpro�t funds its programs and services. Whether you
are a person in a club or association, an employee in an
agency asked to step up and write a grant, or a student
taking a grant writing course, you will be challenged to
enter into an open-minded, critical thinking process that
will lead to a completed proposal. In this process you will
be asked to accomplish the following46% of sample

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will �nd that these skills will help make you a more de‐
sirable employee in the nonpro�t sector or lead to a ca‐
reer as a freelance grant writer taking on projects for a
variety of agencies. (For more information on a career in
grant writing, you might want to consult with national
organizations including the Association of Fundraising
Professionals [AFP], the Grant Writers’ Association, the
Grant Professionals Association, or the American Grant
Writers’ Association. These associations help establish
professional ethics and resources for grant writers, pro‐
vide training and certi�cation, and in some cases, help
individuals �nd quality jobs.) In all, there are many
things you can do with these skills, and we believe they
are well worth learning.

We begin this journey with background information on
the history of philanthropy and nonpro�t agencies and
then move directly into the business of writing grant ap‐
plications and identifying funding for your program.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF GIVING AND
PHILANTHROPY

The Latin word philanthropy is de�ned roughly as “love
for mankind” (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2021). If
you are working in the nonpro�t sector, you are probably
already aware that “love for mankind” can take many
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g , , p ,
work for the able-bodied in workhouses” (“Poor Law”,
2012). Under the Poor Laws, persons who were needy
through no fault of their own—such as the elderly, the
sick, widows with children, and orphans—were cared for,
whereas those who were needy but viewed to have
caused their need, or perceived as being able to address
their need without assistance, were fairly ignored. The
ignored population included older children/young
adults, pregnant single mothers, and criminals.

The Puritans followed the Elizabethan Poor Law model in
caring for needy members in the community and took up
collections in the parishes to meet those needs.
Throughout much of U.S. history, benevolent associa‐
tions were created as a kind of community-based insur‐
ance plan where individuals joined the association and
paid dues that were used to help a family with illness or
the costs of burial. These associations were established
along the lines of ethnicity, employment, or religious
a�liation.

The �rst grants made by the U.S. government were land
grants providing the opportunity for citizens to obtain
property upon which to build a home and put down
roots. Bounty Land Warrants were provided to soldiers in
the Revolutionary War in lieu of �nancial compensation.
The Morrill Act of 1862 provided 30,000 acres of land for
each congressional district that resulted in the creation

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PHILANTHROPY

The Latin word philanthropy is de�ned roughly as “love
for mankind” (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2021). If
you are working in the nonpro�t sector, you are probably
already aware that “love for mankind” can take many
forms. Today, U.S. political orientations are on a contin‐
uum with those on one end believing that an individual’s
character is shaped by their ability to take care of them‐
selves and their families without outside intervention
and the other end believing that a safety net of social pro‐
grams will enable persons who are in need to ultimately
be successful. One perspective encourages individuals to
“pull themselves up by their own bootstraps,” whereas
the other side seeks to provide a “hand up.” Throughout
U.S. history you will see the �ow of giving surge and re‐
treat based on the political party in power and their
beliefs.

The history of giving in the United States has its roots in
16th-century Elizabethan Poor Laws of England that
“were administered through parish overseers, who pro‐
vided relief for the aged, sick, and infant poor, as well as
work for the able-bodied in workhouses” (“Poor Law”,
2012). Under the Poor Laws, persons who were needy
through no fault of their own—such as the elderly, the
sick, widows with children, and orphans—were cared for,
whereas those who were needy but viewed to have
caused their need or perceived as being able to address52% of sample

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o p o t u ds ts p og a s a d se v ces. W et e you
are a person in a club or association, an employee in an
agency asked to step up and write a grant, or a student
taking a grant writing course, you will be challenged to
enter into an open-minded, critical thinking process that
will lead to a completed proposal. In this process you will
be asked to accomplish the following:

identify and state issues clearly and succinctly;
understand and apply research �ndings to program
design;
design e�ective program evaluation to measure the
impact of the program;
listen well, work �exibly and calmly with others,
and be open to the ideas of others;
create and justify a budget for the project; and
�t this within a predetermined number of pages
and format.

Once you have learned how to write a state or federal pro‐
posal as outlined in this book, you will be able to tackle
just about any proposal that comes your way. Plus, you
will �nd that these skills will help make you a more de‐
sirable employee in the nonpro�t sector or lead to a ca‐
reer as a freelance grant writer taking on projects for a
variety of agencies. (For more information on a career in
grant writing, you might want to consult with national
organizations including the Association of Fundraising46% of sample

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business Friday, leaving employees and clients
scrambling to �ll a void the 122-year-old organiza‐
tion will leave. Despite announcing last week plans
to close in March, board Chairman Stephen
Saunders said Wednesday that the organization
will fold this week because it can no longer a�ord
to stay open. He also said Hull House plans to �le
Friday for bankruptcy. (Thayer, 2012)

In the early 1900s, the �rst foundations came into being:
The Carnegie Foundation was founded in 1905 to pro‐
mote education and is the foundation that developed and
manages grants for higher education known as Pell
Grants. Shortly thereafter, in response to a desire to do
something good with his money, John D. Rockefeller, Sr.,
established the Rockefeller Foundation in 1913 with a
mission to promote the well-being of humanity around
the world. Just as these foundations were created out of
the wealth of individuals, so it is today with individual,
family, and corporate foundations created to give back to
the community per the desire and speci�cations of the
creator.

In 1913, the U.S. government began collecting income
taxes, and grants were made by the federal government
to address critical needs and disasters. The country was
well into the Great Depression in 1933 under Republican
President Herbert Hoover. Hoover believed that the de‐

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grants providing the opportunity for citizens to obtain
property upon which to build a home and put down
roots. Bounty Land Warrants were provided to soldiers in
the Revolutionary War in lieu of �nancial compensation.
The Morrill Act of 1862 provided 30,000 acres of land for
each congressional district that resulted in the creation
of 69 colleges such as Cornell University and the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

The late 1800s and early 1900s marked a period of explo‐
sive growth in strategies to meet community needs. In
1889, Jane Addams founded Hull House, a settlement
house that accepted needy men, women, and children,
and provided a range of services on site and advocacy for
improved schools and services. Jane Addams and Hull
House mark the beginning of social work as a profession
in the United States. The following quote illustrates the
struggle that even well-established nonpro�t agencies
can have in obtaining consistent funding. In 2012, Hull
House was forced to close:

Jane Addams Hull House Association will be out of
business Friday, leaving employees and clients
scrambling to �ll a void the 122-year-old organiza‐
tion will leave. Despite announcing last week plans
to close in March, board Chairman Stephen
Saunders said Wednesday that the organization
will fold this week because it can no longer a�ord

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vices delivered. For example, a community dental clinic
has successfully won a contract with the county to pro‐
vide dental care to low-income children. The multipage
document (the contract) signed by the agency and the
county will spell out the details of the services to be de‐
livered. In this example, the contract states that the clinic
is contracted to provide 100 units of �lling at $40 per
unit, 10 units of crown at $500 per unit, and 100 units of
cleaning at $50 per unit. The clinic bills the county in ar‐
rears (after the delivery of services) of service provided. If
the clinic does not need �ve of the 10 units of crowns in
the contract, they will most likely need to make a modi�‐
cation of the contract or risk losing this amount from the
contract. In general, a contract requires a great deal of
management to ensure that all services are delivered ap‐
propriately, services are billed and reimbursed appropri‐
ately, and timely changes are made to the contract to in‐
sure full use of the funds. (Find more on this topic in
Chapter 10 under “Other Budgeting Issues.”)

In contrast, we could imagine that this same clinic has
also received a grant from the CSM Foundation, a corpo‐
rate funder in the community. The terms of the corporate
grant are that the agency will provide dental care to 100
low-income children. The grant does not quantify the
type of care the children will receive, just that the funds
will be used to serve 100 children. The agency will often
receive the full amount of the grant at the beginning of

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Grant writing is an established and rewarding ca‐
reer path for those who seek to contribute to and
improve society.
Agencies use di�erent types of funding such as
grants and contracts to �nance projects.
E�ective grant writers exercise �exibility while
working with sponsors and developing proposals.
They listen to ideas, learn the required jargon, and
create in concert with others. They are attuned to
and engage recipients in program design.

CHAPTER 1 ACTIVITIES

Chapter 1 Activity 1

Visit the website www.volunteermatch.org and
search for grant writing opportunities.

Review volunteer opportunities. Note the tasks as‐
signed to grant writers. What skills are required?

Use an online search engine like Safari, Yahoo!, or
Google and search for job opportunities for grant
writers. Note the organizations that o�er positions
for grant writers.

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pp ( ), g ,
a Request for Quotes, or other variations on that theme.
The funder will often announce the availability of funds
on their website, in newsletters, and through the mail.
The RFP provides information about the following:

the type of funding that is available,
the target population,
the topics to be addressed and desired outcomes,
eligibility to apply for the funding,
the amount of funding allocated,
the source of funding and funder’s goals,
the format of the submitted proposal (spacing,
typeface, and font, etc.),
a listing of all documents that should be attached in
an appendix,
a description of the review process and scoring
procedure,
the due date for receipt of the proposal, and
links to any forms needed to prepare the proposal.

The �rst thing you should do with an RFP is read it care‐
fully. Take time to make certain that the organization is
eligible to apply for the funds, that the target population
in the RFP matches the target population you want to
serve, and that the timeline is acceptable and doable. Get
out your highlighter and mark the important informa‐
tion. The grant writer is responsible to know the details

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fully. Take time to make certain that the organization is
eligible to apply for the funds, that the target population
in the RFP matches the target population you want to
serve, and that the timeline is acceptable and doable. Get
out your highlighter and mark the important informa‐
tion. The grant writer is responsible to know the details
of the RFP down to the nitty-gritty of font size and spac‐
ing. Read and reread this document until you feel con�‐
dent that you could explain it to another and follow its
directions in detail.

KEY POINTS FOR CHAPTER 1

Grant writing is an established and rewarding ca‐
reer path for those who seek to contribute to and
improve society.
Agencies use di�erent types of funding such as
grants and contracts to �nance projects.
E�ective grant writers exercise �exibility while
working with sponsors and developing proposals.
They listen to ideas, learn the required jargon, and
create in concert with others. They are attuned to
and engage recipients in program design.

CHAPTER 1 ACTIVITIES

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In 1913, the U.S. government began collecting income
taxes, and grants were made by the federal government
to address critical needs and disasters. The country was
well into the Great Depression in 1933 under Republican
President Herbert Hoover. Hoover believed that the de‐
pression would eventually be resolved through legisla‐
tion that supported businesses, and ultimately, when
business was good, employees would receive the bene�t
in increased wages (this is called “trickle-down” econom‐
ics). In March 1933, a Democratic president, Franklin
Delano Roosevelt (FDR) was elected to o�ce. FDR be‐
lieved that the country needed more direct governmental
intervention directed to the individual to end the depres‐
sion. Through two terms in o�ce, he created a New Deal
with numerous programs including the Social Security
Administration, the Works Progress Administration, the
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the Securities and
Exchange Commission, and the National Labor Relations
Board. These social programs provided jobs for the unem‐
ployed, put food on the family table, and spurred the de‐
velopment of a robust infrastructure of roads, bridges,
dams, and other public works.

The next burst of social programs came in the 1960s un‐
der Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “Great
Society” when there was a �urry of social programs, in‐
cluding those to address racial injustice and the “War on

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dividual donors, following the vagaries of politics to un‐
derstand and tap into governmental funding, and seek‐
ing to develop partnerships to access the wealth and in‐
�uence of private foundations. The proposal carries the
expression of community need to the funder, and if suc‐
cessful, results in a contract for services, a grant-in-aid,
or simply, a grant. (Although there is a professional set of
standardized terminology in the �eld, we suggest that
you integrate whatever terminology the funder uses in
the proposal you prepare. For example, the funder may
ask for a “Project Summary,” while we call it a “Project
Abstract.”)

DEFINITION OF A PROPOSAL

When writing a proposal, an organization seeks to re‐
ceive �nancial assistance (an award) for its ongoing and
future programs. The organization proposes a project or
program that, according to the federal website
Grants.gov (n.d.), results in awards to provide “support or
stimulation to accomplish a public purpose. Awards in‐
clude grants and other agreements in the form of money,
or property in lieu of money, by the federal government
to an eligible recipient.” For funders, a grant award is an
investment in a program with prede�ned activities and
outcomes that support future positive change. By exten‐
sion, a proposal is an application for �nancial support for

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p j ( y) p
and contribute to the resolution of a societal problem.

REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS (RFP)

There are grants and contracts available to fund educa‐
tional, environmental, cultural, psychological, health and
social programs, and services. Funding that comes
through the government is known as public funding,
whereas funding that comes through a foundation or
corporation is known as private funding. Public funds are
available through federal, state, county, and city govern‐
ments. Private funding is available through foundations
that are created to raise and distribute funds called com‐
munity foundations or those created by corporations to
distribute some of their pro�ts into the community or
simply those created by individuals to distribute their
wealth through a family foundation.

In most cases, the funder announces that they have
funds available to give by issuing a Request for Proposals
(RFP). In some instances, you may see a Request for
Applications (RFA), a Notice of Funding Announcements,
a Request for Quotes, or other variations on that theme.
The funder will often announce the availability of funds
on their website, in newsletters, and through the mail.
The RFP provides information about the following:

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rate funder in the community. The terms of the corporate
grant are that the agency will provide dental care to 100
low-income children. The grant does not quantify the
type of care the children will receive, just that the funds
will be used to serve 100 children. The agency will often
receive the full amount of the grant at the beginning of
the �scal year and will report its progress to the founda‐
tion, making sure to note the number of low-income chil‐
dren served.

It is generally true that grants are more �exible in terms
of what they will fund and require less detailed account‐
ing of services than contracts. For example, a federal fun‐
der such as the Department of Health Services will not
reimburse a luncheon for clients, whereas a private foun‐
dation like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation might
easily approve the request to celebrate a milestone in the
program and request a brief report on the luncheon
event.

The process of seeking funding for the nonpro�t agency
opens the door to a rich and fascinating funding world
that may include tapping into the altruistic drives of in‐
dividual donors, following the vagaries of politics to un‐
derstand and tap into governmental funding, and seek‐
ing to develop partnerships to access the wealth and in‐
�uence of private foundations. The proposal carries the
expression of community need to the funder, and if suc‐
cessful, results in a contract for services, a grant-in-aid,68% of sample

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dams, and other public works.

The next burst of social programs came in the 1960s un‐
der Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “Great
Society” when there was a �urry of social programs, in‐
cluding those to address racial injustice and the “War on
Poverty.” Another surge in social programs was the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) signed
by President Barack Obama to provide �nancial stimulus
to the states hit hardest by the Great Recession. ARRA’s
primary purpose was to support social programs and cre‐
ate jobs with $831 billion committed between 2009 and
2019. Most recently the U.S. government, foundations,
and private companies issued COVID-19 pandemic relief
grants. These grants provided an in�ux of funding for
service delivery, community development, and basic re‐
search. As of the writing of this book in May 2021, the
National Institutes of Health alone provided almost $5
billion for COVID-19 projects.

As you can see, particular social issues come in and out of
style and face reductions or increases in funding based
on the politics of the day. There is true variability in the
world of giving. The types of programs funded by
Congress are subject to realignment and changes in the
focus of politics.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GRANTS
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on the politics of the day. There is true variability in the
world of giving. The types of programs funded by
Congress are subject to realignment and changes in the
focus of politics.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GRANTS
AND CONTRACTS

To make some initial terms clear, the process of writing a
proposal for funding has come to be known as grant writ‐
ing, and the individual responsible for the writing of the
proposal is a grant writer. The entity providing the money
is called the funder. Although it is commonly said that
one writes a proposal to obtain a grant, it may be that the
end result is actually a contract. Be that as it may, we will
continue to follow the generally accepted convention and
continue to use the word grant freely throughout this
book.

Contracts for services, or fee-for-service contracts as they
are often called, require the agency to provide services on
behalf of a funder, and the agency is reimbursed for ser‐
vices delivered. For example, a community dental clinic
has successfully won a contract with the county to pro‐
vide dental care to low-income children. The multipage
document (the contract) signed by the agency and the
county will spell out the details of the services to be de‐
livered. In this example, the contract states that the clinic

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