Q1:
A) Describe your topic of your paper from RES 7011 (attached).
B) After reviewing McGregor (2018), particularly tables 8.2 and 8.3, and using Goodson exercise 31, craft five (6) purpose statements (e.g., “the purpose/goal of the current study is to …”). Try to have at least 3 qualitatively phrased and another 3 quantitatively phrased.
Q2: After reviewing McGregor (2018), particularly tables 8.2 and 8.3, write at least four possible empirical research questions that would follow each of your research proposal statements. Try to have some using qualitative language and others using quantitative language – and identify which is which and why.
Please analyze the questions here and come up with answers, that fully answers all the questions in the prompt.
This will likely be about 400 words. Students are encouraged to include personal experiences and reflections within the scholarly posts.
Use Pyrczak, F., & Tcherni-Buzzeo, M. (2019). Evaluating research in Academic journals: A practical guide to realistic evaluation. Routledge. as well.
ATTACHED
1) My article from RES 7011 (Note the topic, this was asked in the question)
2) McGregor (2018)
SAGE Research
Methods
Understanding and Evaluating Research: A Critical
Guide
Author: Sue L. T. McGregor
Pub. Date: 2019
Product:
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071802656
Methods: Theory, Research questions, Mixed methods
Disciplines: Anthropology, Education, Geography, Health, Political Science and International Relations,
Psychology, Social Policy and Public Policy, Social Work, Sociology
Access Date: January 11, 2023
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc
City: Thousand Oaks
Online ISBN: 9781071802656
© 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc All Rights Reserved.
https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071802656
Overview of Research Design and Methods
Learning Objectives
• Distinguish between methodology, method, and research
de
sign
• Compare and contrast research design as logical and as logistical
• Appreciate the difference between reconstructed logic (quantitative) and logic-in-use (qualitative), es-
pecially an emergent research design
• Explain the five logics of mixed methods research designs
• Appreciate the link between research inquiry and research design
• Describe the purpose and importance of the Methods section of a research report
• Compare and contrast qualitative and quantitative intellectual inquiries
• Identify the major reporting components (subheadings) of qualitative and quantitative research re-
ports
• Compare and contrast the most agreed-to approaches and terms about research integrity, rigor, and
quality that are used in each of the three methodologies, and learn the attendant strategies to meet
the standard for the specific research
methodology
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the constructs of research design and the Methods section in a research paper. Re-
search design is a larger construct than methods, to be explained shortly. But within a research paper, once
the authors have stated the research question, developed an introduction to the study, and presented a re-
view of the literature (and maybe a theoretical framework), their next step is to provide a description of the
strategies used to collect and analyze data pursuant to the research question—that is, their methods. This
chapter provides a generic discussion of methods, followed with much more detail in Chapter 9 (qualitative
methods) and in Chapter
10 (quantitative and mixed methods).
As a caveat, a detailed discussion of how to use specific methods is beyond the scope of this overview chap-
ter, or even this book. There is no attempt to explain how to do a survey, conduct a scientific experiment, pre-
pare a case study, or engage in ethnographic research where researchers immerse themselves in the lives of
the participants. That being said, the general discussions in Chapters 9 (qualitative) and 10 (quantitative and
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mixed methods) will address the basic conventions pursuant to preparing, conducting, and reporting these
types of research, which entails identifying common methods.
This generic chapter will begin with a discussion of the larger construct of research design, including the link
between research design and research inquiry, research design as logic and logistical, and the most common
research designs organized by the three methodologies: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. The
conversation then shifts to a general overview of methods (distinguished from methodology). The purposes of
the Methods section are identified followed with general introductions to the major differences between qual-
itative and quantitative inquiries, the major reporting components (subheadings) of each of these re
search
reports, and the topic of rigor and quality in each of the three methodologies.
Etymology and Definition of Methods and
Research Design
Method is Greek methodus, “for mode of inquiry or investigation.” It stems from meta, “after,” and hodos, “a
travelling, a pursuit, a way of teaching or going” (Harper, 2016). In effect, method refers to investigating or
inquiring into something by going after or pursuing it, especially in accordance with a plan. It involves tech-
niques, procedures, and tasks used in a systematic, logical, and orderly way (Anderson, 2014). Within the
context of conducting and reporting research, it is the stage wherein researchers design instruments, appa-
ratus, or procedures or gain site access (if relevant), obtain a sample, and then collect and analyze data from
that sample (or entire population) (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). As was discussed in Chapter 2, this book
distinguishes between method and methodology, with the latter connoting the philosophical underpinnings of
the
study.
The other term used in this chapter is research design. Research is French recercher, “to search.” In the con-
text of this book, it refers to the accumulation of data that are interpreted, leading to new knowledge. Design
is Latin designare, “to mark out, devise, choose, designate.” A design can be defined as a plan used to show
the workings of something before it is made or created. It can also mean the underlying purpose of some-
thing, in this case, the search for knowledge (Anderson, 2014; Harper, 2016). From a technical stance, the
research design refers to the overall strategy that researchers choose to integrate the different components of
their study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring they can effectively address the research question
using the new knowledge created from the study (Labaree, 2016). Research design also entails logic (Yin,
1984), to be discussed shortly.
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Research Design
Many disciplines mistake research design for methods (de Vaus, 2001). This section explains how this book
distinguishes between these terms, respecting the lack of a consensus in the scholarly arena for their usage.
Research design is a larger construct than method. Per above, methods refer to technical procedures, tech-
niques, or steps taken to obtain information and analyze data for a study. A design is a plan made before
something is done (Anderson, 2014). Designing research is a process that entails both logic (thinking and
reasoned judgments) and logistics (doing), with logic coming first, inherently shaping logistics (methods) (Yin,
1984).
Research Inquiry and Research Design
The logic and thinking that researchers use to design their research is affected both by the (a) methodology
(which shapes the research questions and all assumptions underlying the effort), and (b) type of research
inquiry they are conducting. In short, (a) exploratory research strives to reach a greater understanding of a
problem, usually laying the groundwork for future studies; (b) descriptive research seeks more information
so as to accurately describe something in more detail, creating a fuller picture by mapping the terrain; and
(c) explanatory research seeks to connect ideas to understand causal inferences (explain relationships) (de
Vaus, 2001; Suter, 2012; Yin, 1984). These approaches apply to both quantitative and qualitative research
methodologies (except explanatory), with qualitative also seeking to (d) illuminate meaning and subjective
experiences and (e) understand processes and structures (Blaxter, 2013; Shank & Brown, 2007).
Articulating Research Purpose in Research Design
Each of these five types of research inquiry represents the deeper purpose of the study (the problem), or the
reasons for doing it, which is why Yin (1984) said research design is logical (i.e., it entails reasoned judg-
ments). Each type of inquiry offers a different reason for why the study is needed (e.g., to describe, explore,
find meaning, or theorize). Authors must not confuse research purpose (reason for inquiry) with methodolo-
gy, research design, research question, or methods (see example 8.1). When identifying the nature of their
research inquiry, they can use headings in their paper such as Justification for the Study, Importance of the
Study, or Objectives of the Study (Newman, Ridenour, Newman, & DeMarco, 2003). A clearly stated research
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purpose will help readers formulate a realistic set of expectations about a study and better ensure they eval-
uate the quality of the study’s design within the context of the author’s purpose (Knafl & Howard, 1984) (see
Chapter 6).
Example 8.1 Research purpose versus question The problem is the deeper, more complex rea-
son why the researcher is conducting the study (e.g., to explore, describe, explain, or find meaning).
Newman et al. (2003) recounted a quantitative study in which the research question was incorrectly
presented as the research problem: “What is the effect of making a substantial reduction in class
size on student achievement?” The researchers erroneously characterized class size as the problem
when in fact students’ lack of achievement was the problem and the reason why this explanatory
study was needed (i.e., to explain). In this study, reducing class size was but one solution to in-
creasing student achievement. By losing focus on what the real problem was (lack of achievement),
the researchers designed an inappropriate study if they wanted to explain it. An unfortunate conse-
quence of authors neglecting to clearly state their purpose and problem is that some readers may
uncritically accept their results and change their practice when they should not.
Research Design as Logical and Logistical
Research designs guide the methods decisions that researchers must make during their studies, and they
set the logic by which interpretations are made at the end of studies (Creswell, 2008). To further appreciate
the link between research design logic and method, authors can consider this metaphor. Before builders or
architects can develop a work plan or order building materials, they must first establish the type of building
required, its uses, and the needs of the occupants; that is, they must think about their entire build and justify
any design decisions they make. Their work plans (methods) to construct the building then flow from this logic
(i.e., their reasoned judgments about the build). The same idea holds for a study’s research design (de Vaus,
2001).
Research design as logic concerns researchers thinking about what sorts of data are needed to answer the
research question, including what methods might be most appropriate to generate those data. The type of
research inquiry (i.e., the purpose behind the research) shapes the overall structure of the study, especial-
ly the methods (Kotler, 2000; Newman et al., 2003). Research design as logical equates to a blueprint with
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specific, sequenced (sometimes iterative) steps that are be completed to bring the plan to closure (i.e., the
methods, which are the focus of this chapter). Research design as logistical refers to the work plan developed
by the researcher to collect evidence and analyze data to answer the research question and respect the type
of research inquiry (the logic). Logistical means planning and organizing to make sure things are where they
need to be so an activity or process can happen effectively (Anderson, 2014). The logic affects the logistics
(methods), and the logistics reflect the logic (Yin, 1984) (see Figure 8.1).
Quantitative Research Design Logic
Quantitative research uses a predetermined, fixed research plan based mostly on reconstructed logic. This
logic of research is based on organizing, standardizing, and codifying research into explicit rules, formal pro-
cedures, and techniques so others can follow the same linear plan and reconstruct the study. This is the logic
of “how to do research” and is highly organized and systematic (Jarrahi & Sawyer, 2009; Neuman, 2000).
The type of research inquiry determines the research design created using this logic (see Table 8.1). Should
they create a cross-sectional design (collect data once from one sample), a repeated cross-sectional design
(collect data once from different samples), a longitudinal design (collect data from one sample over time), a
one-subject design, an experimental design, a case study, or some other design (Kotler, 2000)?
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Figure 8.1 Research Design as Logic and Logistical
Table 8.1 Three Types of Research Inquiries, With Examples of Quantitative Research Designs
Exploratory Research Inquiry Descriptive Research Inquiry Explanatory Research Inquiry
Cross-sectional design
Case study design
Cross-sectional design
Longitudinal design
Case study design
Cross-sectional design
Experimental design
Case study design
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Qualitative Research Design Logic
The research designs included in Table 8.1 (based on only reconstructed logic) do not adequately represent
“the logic and processes of qualitative research [which] lacks such an elaborate typology into which studies
can be pigeonholed” (Maxwell, 2008, p. 214). Maxwell (2008) said “this does not mean that qualitative re-
search lacks design” (p. 215). Instead, qualitative research requires a broader and less restrictive concept of
research design, in which researchers use “‘logic-in-use’ [as well as] ‘reconstructed logic’ [to accommodate
the] ‘design in use’ [principle]” (p. 216). This is called an emergent research design wherein the original plan
changes as the research unfolds, meaning it is nonlinear (Creswell, 2009) (discussed in Chapter 9). Regard-
less, the end result is data that are then analyzed, interpreted, and discussed, leading to conclusions, impli-
cations, and recommendations (de Vaus, 2001; Suter, 2012; Yin, 1984).
As a final caveat, de Vaus (2001) explained that researchers should not equate a particular logistical method
with a particular research design logic. It is also erroneous to equate a particular research design with either
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approaches. Instead, authors need to bear in mind the link be-
tween (a) the purpose of the research (logical inquiry) and (b) their research design (both logic and logistics)
(Yin, 1984) and then introduce their Methods section accordingly (see examples 8.2 and 8.3).
Example 8.2 Quantitative research design and method This exploratory, quantitative research
inquiry employed a cross-sectional research design. Data were collected from a purposive sample
using the survey method, specifically a piloted questionnaire designed for this study. Descriptive sta-
tistics were used to analyze the data using Minitab software, and the results were reported using
frequencies, percentages, and means (averages).
Example 8.3 Qualitative research design and method This qualitative research inquiry employed
an emergent research design, using the phenomenological method. Data were collected from a
snowball sample of individual participants by way of interviews. The data were thematically ana-
lyzed, and findings were reported using quotes and a supportive narrative.
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Mixed Methods Research Design Logic
Authors of mixed methods studies should avoid rhetorical logic, meaning they should not assume that one
strand of data is only there to embellish their analysis of the other strand and is not really considered to be
a necessary part of their analytical interpretation or argument. Mixed methods explanations and interpreta-
tions require more challenging logics. Mason (2006) identified five logics, one being rhetorical. Parallel logic
assumes each strand has its own logic (see above), and authors would run these in parallel and report two
different sections, one for each strand. A third approach is corroborative logic, which concerns itself with data
triangulation. Researchers would strive to use data from each strand to corroborate each other (confirm or
give support). If researchers use an integrative logic, they likely choose this at the beginning of the research
design process so they can intentionally link insights from both data streams to get a better picture of the
whole phenomenon (see Chapter 10).
Mason (2006) identified multidimensional logic as the most challenging type of mixed methods logic. “The
argument is that different methods and approaches have distinctive strengths and potential which, if allowed
to flourish, can help [researchers] understand multi-dimensionality and social complexity. . . . The logic imag-
ines ‘multi-nodal’ and ‘dialogic’ explanations which are based on the dynamic relation of more than one way
of seeing and researching. This logic requires that researchers factor into their accounts the different ways of
asking questions and of answering them” (pp. 9–10). It differs from the other logics, which assume data inte-
gration rather than a data intersection. The latter “involves a creative tension between the different methods
and approaches, which depends on a dialogue between them” (p. 10). This dialogue cannot occur without
everyone involved embracing a logic that respects multiple dimensions and points of view (researchers them-
selves and research methodologies, with attendant assumptions, as discussed in Chapter 2).
Review and Engagement
When critically reading a research report, you would
□ Ascertain whether the authors used the term research design when introducing their methods, with-
out confusing the two concepts
□ Make sure they shared their thinking and reasoning about how best to answer their research ques-
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tions (i.e., explained the logic used when creating their research design, especially what type of data
were needed to answer their research questions)
□ Per the above, determine if they included a section titled Justification for or Importance of the Study
□ Determine if they properly referred to reconstructed (deductive) logic (quantitative) or logic-in-use
(qualitative emergent research design) or if they referenced mixed methods logics
□ Determine if they clarified their research design (see Table 8.2)
□ Determine if they explicitly stated the type of research inquiry they employed (exploratory, descrip-
tive, explanatory, meaning seeking, or understanding processes and structures)
Most Common Research Designs
Table 8.2 summarizes the most common research designs for each of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods studies, discussed in much more detail in Chapters 9 and 10. These approaches to designing re-
search differ because of methodological distinctions, discussed in more detail in the second part of this
overview chapter.
Table 8.2 Main Types of Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Designs
Qualitative Research Designs (in-
volve changing tactics over the
course of the study)
Quantitative Research Designs (involve adhering to a formal
plan with no deviation)
Mixed Methods Research Designs (in-
volve some prioritized combination of
strategy and tactics)
• Interpretive—insights from inter-
preting data change the research
design
• Investigative—traces out a phe-
nomenon in its natural field set-
ting
• Participatory—research design
is codeveloped with participants
• Descriptive—describes what actually exists, as well as its fre-
quency, and then categorizes the information
• Correlational—examines whether a change in a variable (no
manipulation) is related to change in another
• Comparative—measures variables that occur naturally in ex-
isting groups, then compares them to determine their influence
on the dependent variable
• Experimental—manipulates independent variables, measures
• Use qualitative methods to explain
quantitative data (words to explain
numbers)
• Use quantitative methods to further
explain qualitative data (numbers to
explain words)
• Use both methods to achieve trian-
gulation
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Methods
The discussion now turns from the construct of research design to that of methods, which are understood
to include instrument development and apparatus, sampling, data collection, and data analysis, differing for
each of the three methodologies used to shape this book: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. This
chapter provides a generic discussion of methods, followed with Chapter 9 (qualitative methods) and Chapter
10 (quantitative and mixed methods).
Methodology Versus Methods
Many disciplines use the word methodology to refer to methods (Schneider, 2014). This section explains how
this book uses these terms, respecting the lack of a consensus in the scholarly arena for their usage. This
book clearly distinguishes between methodology and methods (see Chapter 2). Methodology (ology) is fo-
cused on what is involved in creating new knowledge and refers to the branch of philosophy that analyzes the
principles and axioms of research. The word method refers to a system of strategies used to obtain informa-
tion for a study.
Many disciplines’ use of the word methodology to refer to methods (Schneider, 2014) most likely occurs be-
cause the empirical (quantitative) research paradigm is so prevalent. Given its dominance, authors tend to
• Illuminative—strategically focus-
es on one aspect of research de-
sign
• Instrumentation—study creates
a new data collection instrument
• Sensitization (descriptive)—sen-
sitizes readers to participants’ sit-
uation
• Conceptualization (theory build-
ing)
changes in dependent variable (experiment and control), and
infers causal links
• Quasi-experimental—employs an experimental and control
design using existing groups, then cautiously infers causation
• Predictive exploratory—determines how variables may be
used to develop data-based models of a phenomenon
• Survey (nonexperimental)—examines an already-occurred
event in naturally occurring groups
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deem it unnecessary to identify it as a methodology per se, leaving that term for the data collection and analy-
sis procedures. While respecting this convention, this book assumes that when authors are reporting on in-
strument development, apparatus, sampling, data collection, and data analysis, they are reporting methods,
not methodology (Bryman, 2008). Consequently, this chapter employs the term methods for the strategies to
obtain information for a study, an aspect of research that is deeply informed by methodology (the creation of
knowledge) (see Chapter 2, Table 2.1 and Figure 2.3).
Review and Engagement
When critically reading a research report, you would
□ Determine whether the authors used the terms methodology and methods but did not confuse them
□ Ascertain if they clarified their methodology before presenting their methods
□ Check to see if they provided enough information for you to judge the appropriateness of the se-
lected method(s) against the implicitly or explicitly stated methodology
Purpose and Importance of the Methods Section
Some scholars feel that the Methods section is the most important part of a research paper (Azevedo et al.,
2011; Kallet, 2004). It fulfills several key roles. In this section of their paper, authors have an opportunity to
convince readers they have fully documented all of the steps undertaken to collect and analyze data for their
study. With sufficient information, readers can rest assured that authors have carefully and systematically
thought about their methods, indicating they are clear-thinking and competent researchers who do high-qual-
ity work. In particular, in quantitative research, readers need sufficient information to enable them to repro-
duce the procedures and get similar results (called replicability and reliability). In qualitative work, readers
need sufficient information to enable them to determine if the methods and findings are relevant to, and can
be adopted in, their context (called dependability) (Dillinger, 2011; Labaree, 2016; Shon, 2015; VandenBos,
2010).
In their Methods section, authors should review previous literature pursuant to the design they will be imple-
menting and openly discuss and debate measurement issues and strategies so they can improve on previ-
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ous work. Their own Methods section should clearly set out a well-articulated set of procedures that can be
consistently reapplied (quantitative) or appropriately adopted in another context (qualitative). By making their
measurement choices explicit, authors help readers decide if the study was done well or needs improvement
(Harris, 2014).
Following this convention, the Methods section serves the purpose of fostering ongoing debate about how
to improve measurement instruments and research procedures, whether qualitative or quantitative. Authors
should try to avoid using or perpetuating inconsistent measures and procedures because this creates dis-
continuity in the literature about the particular phenomenon being measured (Choudhuri, Glauser, & Peregoy,
2004; Harris, 2014). As examples, Harris (2014) noted that scholars have developed 200 ways to measure
self-esteem, 16 ways to measure aspiration, and hundreds of instruments to measure quality of life, and they
have not settled on how to measure gender identity or prejudice. These are examples of discontinuities per-
petuated in the literature.
Authors may choose to select from and adapt previous attempts to measure a phenomenon, and if so, they
must provide a solid rationale for their method choices. Using this rationale, readers can critically evaluate
the study’s overall quality (Dillinger, 2011; Labaree, 2016; VandenBos, 2010) (see Chapter 1). As explained
in Chapter 2, quantitative and qualitative research embrace different notions of what counts as knowledge,
reality, logic, and the role of values. These philosophical differences determine what data are collected and
how, and how these data are analyzed and reported.
Major Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Intellectual Inquiry
Table 8.3 portrays the main differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches to scholarship
and to academic inquiry (Ary, Jacobs, & Sorensen, 2010; Choudhuri et al., 2004; Creswell, 2009; Driessnack,
Sousa, & Mendes, 2007a; Johnson & Christensen, 2012; Patton, 2002; Rolfe, 2006; Suter, 2012). Authors
should write their Methods section using language and vocabulary reflective of the approach that informed
the inquiry in their study. This narrative would reflect each methodology’s respective assumptions about real-
ity, truth, the role of values, the importance of context, the role and voice of the researcher, the applicability
of variable manipulation, logics, and so on. Critical readers can use this narrative (its presence or absence)
to draw conclusions about the quality of the scholarship. In a mixed methods study, authors would use this
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information as appropriate when addressing each strand of their research design: qualitative and quantitative.
Table 8.3 Main Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Intellectual Inquiry
Qualitative Inquiry Quantitative Inquiry
• Assumes subjective reality is socially constructed and subjective • Assumes there is an objective reality ready to be discovered
• Appreciates complexity and multiple truths • Favors parsimony and assumes a single truth
• Research is value bound, and the researcher’s values are accounted
for
• Research is value neutral, and the researcher’s values are muted
• The researcher is the primary instrument (observations, interviews)
• Uses inanimate instruments (scales, questionnaires, checklists,
tests)
• Contextualizes findings and applies ideas across contexts • Generalizes results from a sample to a population
• Portrays natural settings and contexts • Manipulates and controls variables
• Few participants, many variables • Few variables, many subjects
• Understands the insider’s view • Presents the objective outsiders’ view
• Human behavior is situational • Human behavior is regular
• Interprets human behavior in context • Predicts human behavior
• Understands perspectives (empathetic) and exploration • Provides causal explanations and predictions
• Widely, deeply examines phenomena • Narrowly tests specific hypotheses
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• Focuses on quality, essence, and nature • Focuses on quantity (how much)
• Presents the world as seen by participants • Presents social facts devoid of context
• Uses inductive then deductive logic • Uses deductive then inductive logic
• Searches for patterns and looks for complexity • Analyzes discrete components looking for the norm
• Uses purposive sampling • Uses random sampling
• Single cases or small samples • Large samples with statistical power
• The research design is emergent and evolving • The research design is predetermined
• Data are words, images, and categories • Data are numbers (minor use of words)
• Nonlinear, iterative, and creative analysis • Linear, standardized, and prescribed analysis
• Thematic, patterned analysis of data • Statistical analysis of data
• Power in rich descriptions and detail • Statistical power
• Reports are written in expressive, holistic language (thick descriptions) • Reports are written in precise, conventional, abstract language
• Some studies create theory from the findings • Use theory to ground the study and interpret results
• Generates understandings from patterns • Test hypotheses that are born from theory
• Faces conceptual complexity • Faces statistical complexity
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Major Components (Report Subheadings) of Qualitative and Quantitative Re-
search
Table 8.4 compares the basic stages or major components of both quantitative and qualitative research meth-
ods and provides the typical subheadings authors would use to report their respective methods for a study.
Purposefully using these headings greatly facilitates others’ ability to critically read the Methods section of a
research report. If authors fail to explicitly indicate which methodology informed their study, readers can take
cues from their subheadings. Absence of these subheadings—or, worse yet, the content relevant to each
stage—raises unnecessary flags about the study’s integrity and quality. These headings are used in Chapters
9 and 10 to organize the discussion of how to report both qualitative and quantitative research or their strands
within a mixed methods study.
• Strives for trustworthy, credible data • Strives for reliable and valid data
Table 8.4 Basic Steps (Report Subheadings) of Qualitative and
Quantitative Methods
Qualitative Methods
NOTE: These steps are not always linear and sequential
Quantitative Methods
NOTE: These steps are linear and sequential
• Site selection and access (gaining access to the site from which the sample
will be drawn)
• Sampling (people, artifacts from the site[s])
• Ethical considerations
• Role of the researcher (responsible self-accounting, privileges sample’s
voice)
• Data collection (from site participants, with the researcher as the key data col-
lection instrument, yielding piles of raw data—words, pictures, graphics)
• Thick and deep (re)presentation of the data (detailed accounts of the re-
search context and participants’ experiences)
• Instruments, apparatus, and/or procedures (tools to collect
data)
• Sampling (people, animals, artifacts from which data are
collected)
• Ethical considerations
• Data collection (from the sample using the aforementioned
tools, yielding a pile of raw data—numbers)
• Data analysis (statistically examine the pile of raw data to
determine its essential features, done after data collection)
• Account for validity, reliability, and generalizability
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Review and Engagement
When critically reading a research report, you would
□ Ascertain whether the authors used language and vocabulary reflective of the research inquiry ap-
proach that informed their study (see Table 8.3)
□ Determine if they used methodology-specific headings to organize their Methods section (see
Table 8.4) and fully accounted for and shared their research design logic and logistics
□ If subheadings are missing, determine if the authors at least included pertinent details for each
stage of their respective methodology’s research design
• Data analysis (thematic, patterned examination of the thick data, often done
in concert with data collection)
• Account for trustworthiness (along several criteria)
• Data security and management
• Limitations of emergent research design
• Data security and management
• Limitations of predetermined research design (normally fol-
lows the Discussion section)
Table 8.5 Comparison of Criteria to Ensure High-Quality Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative (Positivistic, Empirical, Deterministic)
Qualitative (Postpositivistic, Naturalistic, In-
terpretive, Critical)
Striving for unbiased data (results are true if no bias was introduced, made possible if the re-
searcher’s personal preferences, prejudices, and opinions are held at bay during the entire re-
search process).
Strategies: judiciously address issues of internal validity to ensure that the study design, imple-
mentation, and data analysis are bias free, yielding high levels of evidence of cause and effect
(or association); employ representative and random sampling techniques; account for missing
and incomplete data; acknowledge funding sources.
Striving for trustworthy data (data must be
truly transparent and open to critical thinking
by reader; trust means acceptance of the
truth of a statement).
Strategies: triangulation (multiple sources of
data); member checks; saturation during da-
ta collection; peer review or expert consulta-
tions; audit trail (detailed record of re-
searcher’s decisions, with reasons); thick de-
scriptions; plausible alternatives; account for
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negative cases; prolonged engagement in
the field.
Objectivity:
Empirical research is said to be value free, meaning the research process should not be influ-
enced by the researcher’s emotions, preferences, or personal prejudices. Researchers are sup-
posed to dispassionately engage in research from a stance of value neutrality, thereby ensuring
the truth is found. Judgments about the evidence should not coincide with the researcher’s ori-
entation (despite that science is not really neutral; relative value neutrality is more likely than
absolute neutrality).
Confirmability (subjectivity):
Refers to the researcher’s neutrality when in-
terpreting data (i.e., self-awareness and con-
trol of one’s bias); appreciating that values
are central to the research process, re-
searchers still have to be sure their findings
can be confirmed or corroborated by others
(i.e., their values did not take over). It is the
extent to which findings are shaped by the
respondents themselves, rather than the re-
searcher’s bias.
Strategies: embrace the tenets of the scientific method and empirical inquiry; do not distort re-
search or let one’s values intrude by drawing on personal worldviews, motives, self-interest, or
customs or by capitulating to external pressures (researchers are especially vulnerable to value
intrusion during the interpretation and discussion stage).
Strategies: reflexivity (involves self-critique
and disclosure of what one brings to the re-
search, especially one’s predispositions); au-
dit trails; method triangulation; peer review
and debriefing.
Internal validity:
This refers to the integrity of the research design. The word internal pertains to the inner work-
ings of the research process, designed and conducted to ensure that the researcher measured
what was intended to be measured (producing strong, valid data instead of weak, invalid data).
Also, the research design should follow the principle of cause and effect. There are seven major
threats to internal validity (i.e., measuring something other than what was intended): (a) conta-
mination by an extraneous event (history effect); (b) participants aging or tiring (maturation ef-
fect); (c) loss of subjects or attrition between testing (mortality effect); (d) sensitizing subjects
with pretest (testing effect); (e) extremely high or low pretest scores (statistical regression ef-
fect); (f) subjects are not carefully assigned to test groups (selection bias effect); and (g) unreli-
ability of an assessment instrument (instrumentation effect).
Strategies: take steps necessary to mitigate threats to internal validity (e.g., account for contam-
ination, maturation, attrition, sampling size, group formation and assignment, instrumentation
alignment, and testing sensitization).
Credibility (credible to the participants):
Did the researchers create a faithful account-
ing of people’s lived experiences (i.e., an ac-
curate representation of their reality, from
their perspective)? Did the researchers get a
full answer to their research question? Also,
can others have confidence in the truth
shared by the researchers (i.e., in their ob-
servations, interpretations, and conclu-
sions)? The latter require strong evidence,
clear logic, valid data, and ruling out alterna-
tive explanations.
Strategies: member checks; detailed, thick
descriptions (and lots of quotes); triangula-
tion (methods and data); peer review and de-
briefing; extended and prolonged fieldwork;
researcher reflexivity to mitigate invalidity;
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cross-case comparisons.
External validity (asserted by the researcher):
Does the truth (conclusions) from the study hold in situations outside the study? Researchers
have to ask, “How similar is my study to the situation I want to generalize to?” (meaning make a
broad statement from a specific case). If too dissimilar, their results and conclusions are not ex-
ternally valid; that is, they do not hold true for other situations (based on statistical assump-
tions).
Transferability (determined by the user):
Refers to the degree to which findings can
be applied or transferred to other contexts or
settings—that is, used more widely by oth-
ers. It is the researcher’s responsibility to
provide accurate, detailed, and complete de-
scriptions of the context and the participants
so that users of the study can determine if
the findings and conclusions apply (are
transferable) in their context (based on simi-
larity of deep descriptors).
Strategies: judiciously choose appropriate research design protocol (especially sample size and
bias). Then, before asserting that the results are valid in other populations, situations, and con-
ditions, researchers must recognize, consider, and report on factors that mitigate these asser-
tions, notably any interactions (a) among treatment and subjects, settings, and history as well
as (b) between subjects and settings. Researchers often temper their assertions by setting out
study limitations.
Strategies: cross-case comparisons; litera-
ture comparisons; detailed, thick descrip-
tions; researcher reflexivity to mitigate inva-
lidity; state study limitations (account for se-
lection, setting, and history effects that might
make the study unique to only a single group
[i.e., not transferable]).
Reliability (of the instrument and methods):
Refers to the extent to which someone else can follow the research design with the same sam-
ple and get the same results. Are the methods reproducible and consistent, and is sufficient in-
formation provided so others can repeat the approach and procedures? To what extent are vari-
ations controlled?
The reliability of the instrument depends on six types of validity: (a) face validity (subjects think
the test is measuring what it is supposed to measure); (b) expert judges think the test is valid;
(c) test items actually contain content being measured; (d) compare a new test with a previously
validated test (concurrent validity); (e) taking a test is good prediction of a score when the test is
taken again in the future (predictive validity); and (f) construct validity (mix of all of the oth-
ers—did the test measure the intended higher-order construct and nothing else related to it, de-
termined by how the variables are operationalized?).
Strategies: standardized administration of instrument or procedure; internal consistency (i.e.,
ensure instrument items are actually measuring the underlying construct, reflected in Cron-
bach’s alpha); increase number of test items; use objective scoring; test-retest; ensure that two
Dependability:
Related to reliability, researchers have to re-
sponsibly provide sufficient information so
others can repeat the research design proto-
col in their context but not necessarily get the
same results. It refers to the stability of find-
ings over time and in changing research con-
texts (i.e., others can rely [depend] on the
study). The latter means the findings, conclu-
sions, and interpretations must be supported
by the data. Note that credibility ensures de-
pendability.
Strategies: audit trail; triangulation; rich doc-
umentation; intra- and intercoder or observer
agreement; approach and procedures are
appropriate for the context and can be docu-
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Integrity of Research Designs
Both quantitative and qualitative researchers have to ensure, respectively, that their data are reliable (can be
replicated or adopted) and valid (they measured what was intended to be measured), with results generaliz-
able to those outside the study or adoptable in another setting, respectively. Differences in the philosophical
assumptions between quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches, however, mean researchers
tend to employ different terminology for these key aspects of a study’s rigor or quality (Ary et al., 2010). And,
although very consistent in quantitative research, nomenclature for issues of rigor is not consistent in qualita-
tive research (Suter, 2012) and has a unique twist in mixed methods (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2006).
Integrity of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Designs
Table 8.5 provides an overview of the most agreed-to approaches and terms used by both types of re-
searchers and of attendant strategies to meet the standard for the specific research methodology (Ary et al.,
different forms of one test measure the same thing. mented.
Generalizability (breadth of applicability):
Researchers want to make broad statements from their specific case (they used a small ran-
dom sample from a whole population). They want their conclusions to hold for others not in their
study. Based on statistical assumptions, generalizability refers to the extent to which results and
conclusions can be applied to people, settings, or conditions beyond those represented in the
study.
Strategies: account for external validity.
Authenticity (realness for participants):
Researchers want to make specific state-
ments about only the people they studied
(how the latter see their world). So, authen-
ticity refers to the extent to which partici-
pants’ voices and agency are ensured, and it
strives for assurances that the researcher
has represented all views of all participants
(authentic means “original, genuine, undis-
puted”).
Strategies: collaboration with participants;
member checking; researcher reflexivity (in-
volves self-critique and disclosure of what
one brings to the research).
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2010; Creswell & Miller, 2000; Guba, 1981; Johnson & Christensen, 2012; Lincoln, 1995; Nahrin, 2015; New-
man, Newman, & Newman, 2011; Shenton, 2004). Table 8.5 addresses issues of unbiased and trustworthy
data, objectivity and subjectivity (confirmability), internal validity and credibility, external validity and transfer-
ability, reliability and dependability, and generalization and authenticity (representing quantitative and qualita-
tive, respectively). These are discussed in more detail in Chapters 9 and 10.
Integrity of Mixed Methods Research Designs
With more detail in Chapter 10, mixed methods authors have to be concerned with reporting both design rigor
and interpretative rigor because mixed methods research depends on integration of data from both qualita-
tive and quantitative strands. Interpretative rigor evaluates the validity of the conclusions and comprises three
standards: (a) Interpretative consistency occurs when inferences follow from the findings or results, rather
than coming out of the blue. (b) Theoretical consistency means inferences are consistent with known the-
ories. (c) Integrative efficacy occurs when meta-inferences (integrating initial strand-specific inferences into
inferences that apply across the entire data set) adequately incorporate inferences that stem from both the
qualitative and quantitative phases of the study; that is, neither is privileged when discussing the outcomes of
the study (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2006).
Technical Aspects of Reporting Methods
In addition to length and organizational logic and approaches, several grammatical conventions inform the
preparation of the Methods section of a research paper (e.g., person, tense, and voice) (Lynch, 2014). Each
is now discussed.
Length
Suter (2012) suggested that the Methods section is one of the longest sections of a research proposal (in the
range of five or so pages), but for a research article, it is one of the shortest sections. Fox (2013) explained
that while the findings of a qualitative paper constitute 30%–40% of the paper, the Methods section is shorter
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(10%) and requires that authors employ a concise, tight, logical writing style. In a quantitative report, authors
should devote about 10%–15% of their paper to their Methods section (Thomas, 2011). The length of this
section in a mixed methods study depends on which strand was prioritized, qualitative or quantitative.
Lynch (2014) clarified that the length of a qualitative Methods section is dictated by how much detail is re-
quired to describe site selection, access, sampling, data collection, and analytical procedures. Authors also
have to make available an audit trail (detail) that readers can follow to access researchers’ thinking while they
implemented and adjusted their emergent research design. The same principle of detail holds for a quantita-
tive paper. The quantitative Methods section should be detailed enough that (a) it can be repeated by others
because its essential characteristics have been recounted (reliability) and (b) readers can judge whether the
results and conclusions are valid (i.e., did the study measure what it intended to measure?) (Kallet, 2004).
More specifically, detail means those things that could logically be expected to influence the results. “Insuffi-
cient detail leaves the reader with questions; too much detail burdens the reader with irrelevant information”
(American Psychological Association, 2001, p. 18).
In all three methodologies, authors have to ensure that readers can follow what was done and judge its rigor
and quality. Labaree (2016) opined that authors should assume readers possess a basic understanding of the
method. This assumption means authors do not have to go into great detail about specific procedures; rather,
they should focus on how they “applied a method, not on the mechanics of doing the method.” The accepted
convention is to provide adequate citations to support the choice and application of the methods employed
in their study. They need to know their audience and decide how much detail is appropriate (Goodson, 2017;
Harris, 2014). If they are reporting a new procedure they developed for their study, more detail is justified, but
they should avoid the recipe approach (step-by-step) (The Writing Center, 2014b).
In summary, when deciding on the length of their Methods section, authors have to take “into account the
difficult balance between completeness (sufficient details to allow . . . verification [of rigor]) and brevity (the
impossibility of describing every technical detail and the need to strictly follow the guidelines/instructions for
authors provided by journals and recommendations regarding word count limits)” (Azevedo et al., 2011, p.
232).
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Organizational Logic and Approaches
Suter (2012) observed that readers “can easily get lost in a disorganized maze that purports to describe
or manage data” (p. 461). Journal editors commonly reject manuscripts due to errors or omissions in the
Methods section (Boylorn, 2008; Hesson & Fraias-Hesson, 2010b). To offset this possibility, authors need
to choose an organizational framework for their Methods section that “effectively make[s] sense of data and
convince[s] the reader that the plan for data management [collection, and analysis] is meaningful, structured,
and coherent” (Hesson & Fraias-Hesson, 2010b, p. 461).
“The organization of the method section depends on the author’s presentation logic” (Rocco & Plakhotnik,
2011, p. 167). (a) The most common approach is chronological, meaning authors would arrange the discus-
sion of their method in the order that things occurred. (b) Sometimes, in order to describe a complex aspect
of their research design, authors may have to shift to a most-to-least-important structure within the chrono-
logical approach. (c) Another common organizational pattern is general-to-specific (Boylorn, 2008; Hesson &
Fraias-Hesson, 2010b; Labaree, 2016). (d) Authors can also organize their Methods section using the major
components of their research design, identified with subheadings, taking direction from Table 8.4 for each
of qualitative and quantitative reports (Boylorn, 2008; Hesson & Fraias-Hesson, 2010b; Rocco & Plakhotnik,
2011).
Objective Versus Subjective Writing
When preparing quantitative papers, authors are encouraged to use descriptive writing so they can ensure
concise, adequate, logical, and detailed descriptions of their methods (Goodson, 2017; Labaree, 2016; Rocco
& Plakhotnik, 2011). Goodson (2017) explained that, as ironic as it sounds, when using descriptive writing,
authors strive to be objective and avoid subjective judgments of what happened during the sampling or data
collection stages. She provided these examples (p. 177):
Example 8.4 Descriptive (objective) writing “After examining the pictures, the researcher asked
each child to select the picture they [sic] wanted to discuss.”
Example 8.5 Nondescriptive (subjective) writing: “The very young second-graders examined
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three interesting pictures the researcher presented to them. After the children spent a lot more
time than planned examining the pictures, the researcher asked each child to select the picture
they [sic] wanted to discuss.” (Note that the words in bold represent the writer’s subjective judg-
ments of what happened during data collection.)
The use of subjective writing is more allowable in qualitative papers as long as researchers have addressed
their inherent biases by (a) engaging in reflexivity (i.e., continuous examination and explanation of how they
influenced the research process) and (b) creating an audit trail by which readers can trace the author’s cog-
nitive decisions pursuant to putting their research plan into action (Blaxter, 2013). Per example 8.5, if it was
a qualitative study, children spending longer than anticipated to examine the pictures may have been a key
moment that shaped the researcher’s understanding of the phenomenon as experienced by those living it.
Person, Tense, and
Voice
The different use of language (i.e., person, tense, and voice) in the Methods section of quantitative and quali-
tative papers reflects the different epistemological and axiological assumptions of these two broad approach-
es to research (Lynch, 2014).
Person
Authors of quantitative papers conventionally write in third person so as to reflect the objective nature of the
scholarship. The Methods section of qualitative papers is often written using a much more subjective tone,
employing second, and even first, person because the author (researcher) is the main data collection instru-
ment and is intimately involved in the implementation of the research design plan (Boylorn, 2008; Hesson &
Fraias-Hesson, 2010a; Johnson & Christensen, 2012). First person is now acceptable in social sciences but
less so in the natural sciences (The Writing Center, 2014b). “This rhetorical choice brings two scientific values
into conflict: objectivity versus clarity” (The Writing Center, 2014b, p. 7). The scientific community has yet to
reach a consensus about which style should be used, meaning authors should at least consult the journal’s
preferred style manual or its Guidelines for Authors (see Chapter 5).
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Tense
Regardless of the research methodology, the Methods section is written in the past tense because the work
has already happened (Boylorn, 2008; Hesson & Fraias-Hesson, 2010a; Kallet, 2004; Labaree, 2016). There
are a few exceptions. Sentences describing standard procedures commonly used by others are written in
present tense (e.g., “This assessment instrument is often used in studies focused on student intelligence”)
(Lynch, 2014). Also, authors should try to avoid using the imperative (e.g., “Add 5 grams of the solid to the
solution”) because it sounds like a recipe approach, which is to be avoided. A narrative structure using past
tense is preferred to a step-by-step, recipe model (The Writing Center, 2014b).
Voice
Authors of quantitative papers are encouraged to use passive voice because it places the focus on what was
done, not who did it. Occasionally, the passive voice is used with a by phrase, naming the agent as well as
the action (e.g., “The survey was administered by the high school principal”) (Boylorn, 2008; Hesson & Fra-
ias-Hesson, 2010a). While passive voice should always be used in quantitative papers, authors of qualitative
papers can consciously choose what voice they will use (Boylorn, 2008). Normally, authors of qualitative pa-
pers employ active voice, which focuses on who did the action. This writing strategy makes sense because
“qualitative research recognises, and even foregrounds, the role played by individuals—the researcher, the
informants and other participants” (Lynch, 2014, p. 33).
Example 8.6 Passive voice Stress was applied to the rubber segments in gradually increasing in-
crements. [focus on what was done]
Example 8.7 Active voice Both the researcher and the participants (we) examined the graffiti on
the walls of the community hall. [focus on who did something]
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Review and Engagement
When critically reading a research report, you would
□ Judge if the Methods section was long enough to recount what the authors did to sample, collect,
and analyze data to answer their research question
□ Ascertain if, overall, they organized their Methods section is such a way that it is meaningfully struc-
tured, providing a coherent overview that is understandable (i.e., nothing is missing or inadequately
explained)
□ Confirm that quantitative authors used objective writing, avoiding subjective judgments of what
happened during the sampling or data collection and analysis stages
□ Determine if they followed the recommended conventions for tense, voice, and person for the
methodology
Final Judgment on Research Design and Methods Section
Taking all of the Review and Engagement criteria into account, what is your final, overall judgment of the
research design and Methods section of the paper you are critically reading?
Chapter Summary
This chapter addressed the very complicated issues of research design and what is involved in reporting the
methods employed to sample, collect, and analyze data to answer the research question for a particular study.
It began with a discussion of the larger construct of research design, including (a) the link between research
design and research inquiry, (b) research design as logic and logistical, and (c) the most common research
designs organized by the three methodologies: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods (see Table 8.2).
The conversation then shifted to a general overview of methods (distinguished from methodology), acknowl-
edging more detailed coverage to follow in Chapters 9 and 10. The purposes of the Methods section were
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
identified, followed with general introductions to (a) the major differences between qualitative and quantitative
inquiry, (b) the major reporting components (subheadings) of each type of research report, and (c) the topic
of rigor and quality in each of the three methodologies. The chapter wrapped up with an overview of the basic
grammatical and organizational conventions of reporting and writing up the Methods section of a research
paper.
Review and Discussion Questions
Based on the approach used in this book, how do methods differ from methodologies? How do
methods differ from the research design?
Distinguish between research design as logical and as logistical (Figure 8.1).
How is the research design tied with the type of research inquiry?
What are the main differences between qualitative and quantitative inquiry and their approach to
scholarship (see Table 8.3)? Which of these aspects of scholarly inquiry did you struggle with the
most, and why?
Compare qualitative research design logic with quantitative research design logic.
Identify the basic steps for conducting and reporting both qualitative and quantitative studies, com-
menting on the issue of linearity and sequentiality. Which method do you feel most comfortable with,
and why? How did these differ from approaches to designing mixed methods studies?
Explain to someone else in plain language the basic differences in reporting the methods used for
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies.
How do qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies differ in how they deal with quality and
rigor in their research design (see Table 8.5)?
Summarize the conventions for length, tense, person, and voice when preparing the Methods sec-
tion of a research paper, depending on the methodology.
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Understanding and Evaluating Research: A Critical Guide
Overview of Research Design and Methods
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Etymology and Definition of Methods and Research Design
Research Design
Research Inquiry and Research Design
Articulating Research Purpose in Research Design
Research Design as Logical and Logistical
Quantitative Research Design Logic
Figure 8.1 Research Design as Logic and Logistical
Qualitative Research Design Logic
Mixed Methods Research Design Logic
Review and Engagement
Most Common Research Designs
Methods
Methodology Versus Methods
Review and Engagement
Purpose and Importance of the Methods Section
Major Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Intellectual Inquiry
Major Components (Report Subheadings) of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Review and Engagement
Integrity of Research Designs
Integrity of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Designs
Integrity of Mixed Methods Research Designs
Technical Aspects of Reporting Methods
Length
Organizational Logic and Approaches
Objective Versus Subjective Writing
Person, Tense, and Voice
Person
Tense
Voice
Review and Engagement
Final Judgment on Research Design and Methods Section
Chapter Summary
Review and Discussion Questions
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